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In the 7th century AD, Prophet Muhammad preached a new religion in Arbia. Islam is its name. Islam is originated from Arabic word ‘Salem. It implies that one should completely surrender to God in deed and mind. The followers of Muhammad were called Muslims. Islam in the religion of Muslims. It teaches that there is only one God and Muhammad is the Prophet. The advent of audacious and ardent Muslims had increased their number by leaps and bounds. They attacked India in AD 712 and it ushered a new phase in the medieval history of India. The wrecked and ruthless raids of Muslims with evangelistic Islamic sentiment for proselytization brought enormous changes in India not only in socio-economic and political scenario but also in the realm of education and culture. Unprecedented fanaticism of the Muslim rulers multiplied by their political sagacity and shrewdness brought far-reaching changes in the Indian education, way of life and social setting.

The Muslims established themselves permanently within the starting rule of Muslim in India in AD 1192. Thereafter, they started proselytizing some of native Indians to Islam which necessitated establishment of mosques. These mosques usually became the centres of educational instructions and literary activities in addition to their normal religious activities. Muslim rule continued in India more than six hundred years. Except few Muslim rulers of catholic outlook and attitude. Most of the rulers brought irreparable damage to the then Hindu and Buddhist network of educational institutions allover the length and breadth of the country. In turn, they made attempts to propagate and expand Islam, Islamic culture and education in India.

With the assistance of the State accompanied by the efforts of Amirs, Omarahis, Mullahs, and Maulavis Indian education turned to a new shape this period. Islamic education completely changed not only the contemporary Indian system of education but also its aims, curricula, methods of instruction and modes of financing. Some benevolent Muslim rulers of India made commendable contribution to a healthy, secular and utilitarian development of education in the country. An attempt is being made here to discuss various aspects of lslamic education in India.

SALIENT FEATURES OF ISLAMIC SYSTEM OF EDUCATION

Education for the development of Islam

The lslamic education aimed at propagation and dissemination of lslamic principles, laws and social conventions among the learners. Expansion of knowledge was highly eulogized. Education aimed at making the learner religious minded along with acquisition of skills in material prosperity. It sounded the glory and grandeur of lslamic religion, its conventions and practices. It aimed at dissemination of Koranic knowledge and Islamic theology among the students.

Education for practical utility of life

MEDIEVAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION IN ISLAMIC PERIOD

Islamic education was not based on speculative principles. It was more concerned with practical benefits and utilitarian values. So, education was nothing but a preparation for life and attainment of material gains through acquisition of knowledge and essential skills for earning livelihood.

Construction of Maktabs and Madarasahs as centres of learning

Education was organised in Maktabs and Madarasahs. Provision of elementary education was made through establishment of Maktabs and higher education through Madarasahs. The Muslims rulers considered expansion of Islamic education the most charitable and eclestical work. Expansion of lslamic education was considered one of the criteria for gaining God’s bliss.

State patronage to Islamic education

Islamic education received the patronage of state. The Muslim rulers took it a pride and privilege to establish educational institutions and libraries along with mosques. They patronized good students and scholarly people.

Devastation of ancient educational institutions

The Muslim rulers in India were upholders of a new religion, culture and language which caused certain damage to the cultural institutions of India. Emphasis on study of Persian and Arabic, Persian was lingua franca and Arabic was the language of Islamic texts and literature. These languages were made the media of instruction in educational institutions. As such, vernacular languages in India did not receive due support from the states and their rulers. Due to lack of support to Sanskrit, Pali and other Indian languages; they were almost in decaying and dying state.

Little provision for University education

There was very little provision for University education in Muslim Rule. Education provided in Maktabs and Madarasahs bore the religious stamp of orthodoxy. Little arrangement was made in the sphere of University education in Muslim rule.

Teacher-taught relationship

Like Vedic and Buddhist periods, the teacher-taught relationship in lslamic education was close and cordial. But due to changing view-point towards education, the ideal relation between teacher and taught started declining slightly during the Muslim period.

Free education

Ordinarily, tuition fees were not charged from the students receiving education in Maktabas and Madarasahs. Even then, deserving meritorious students used to get all sorts of assistance like fooding, accommodation, study materials, etc. from the management of the institution.

Strict discipline

Maintenance of discipline in educational institutions was highly weighed. Rigorous punishment was inflicted on erring and miscreant students. In order to maintain discipline in schools, teachers were empowered to inflict on erring students different types of corporal punishment.

Emphasis on character formation

Formation of good character and development of moral values and virtues were greatly stressed and eulogized in lslamic system of education. Emphasis on theoretical education and practical utility

Islamic education beautifully blended religion and physical education by giving emphasis on worldly aspects. Education was considered a means to achieve material gains in future.

No common examination system

System of common examination was not prevalent in the Islamic system of education. It depended on the will of the teacher whether to send up to upper class or not. There was no common examination for students. Teacher evaluated pupils’ achievement in their own way of evaluating norms.

Conferring of degrees

There did not exist any systematic and regulated common examination system. But there was also the system of awarding degrees after the completion of education. The students who acquired special distinction in religion were conferred the degree of Alam and students completing the education of logic were awarded degree of ‘Fazil and in literature Qubil degree for distinction. Town-centred education.

Islamic education mostly flourished in towns along with establishment of mosques. But they were mostly located in sylvan settling and serene surrounding near towns.

Military education

Muslim rulers considered military strength essential to wage religious War(zehad) against their enemies and to continue their rule in India. Keeping this in view, Islamic education laid emphasis on giving military training to learners to become soldiers. Military education was, by and large, compulsory for all.

Women education

Paradah system was there in lslam. But lslam does not oppose to girls education. But during Muslim period in India, education of girls received a great set back particularly at secondary level. Girls were getting education up to primary level. Due to paradah, they were not going to Madarasahs for higher study with boys. But well-to-do families had made their own arrangements for education of their girls at their residence and girls of ruling class at their harem.

Monitorial system

During the Islamic period, Hindu monitorial system was also prevalent. Intelligent and advanced students were asked to act as monitors and they used to assist the teachers in the instructional work and maintenance of discipline during temporary absence of teacher.

Education at the direction of the rulers

During Islamic rule in India, the rulers were authoritarian and autocratic. But due to individual attitude and belief, the expansion of education differed from Sultan to Sultan, and from Badasaha to

Badasaha. Due to few benevolent and education-loving rulers, certain progress was possible in educational sphere. The state did not consider educational expansion a part of administrative scheme of the state. Due to absence of sound educational principles, education remained at the back and call of the Muslim rulers in India.

Educational expansion through learned assemblies

The royal courts used to patronize poets and writers who were considered jewels. Presence of such scholars added more glory to the royal courts. Like the royal courts, rich amirs and omarahis used to harbour learned people during the medieval period.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF ISLAMIC SYSTEM OF EDUCATION

Acquisition and development of knowledge

Prophet Muhammad emphatically stated that acquisition of knowledge and development of education are the greatest duties of each and every Muslim. According to Him, ‘Knowledge is the nectar and salvation is not possible without it. So seek knowledge from cradle to grave and acquire it if it be in China’. Further, he says, ‘Acquire knowledge because he who acquires in the way of Lord, performs an act its fitting objects, of piety; who speaks of it, praises the Lord; who seeks it, addresses God; who disciplines, instructs in it, bestows alms; and who imparts it to perform an act of devotion to God’. Prophet considered education an essential requisite of human happiness and mental peace. Knowledge propels darkness from man. Knowledge enables one to distinguish between right and wrong, religious antireligious, vices and virtues, etc. Islam considers knowledge a path to heaven. Itis one’s friend in desert, one’s society in solitude and one’s companion in bereft of friends. It shows the path to happiness, sustains one in misery and pains, it is an ornament in the company of friends, it is an armour against the enemies. As such, Islam lays high emphasis on acquiring knowledge, propagating and disseminating it. Acquisition of knowledge is accorded the highest place in the realm of lslamic system and is considered one of the seven major attributes of Allah (God).Propagation and expansion of Islam.

Every perfect Muslim considers propagation of Islam a true and sacred relilgious obligation. In the beginning stage of Muslim rule in India, many Muslim rulers as well as military juntas prompted by vandalistic, iconoclastic and proselytizing temperament demolished Buddhist and Vedic centres of religion and education for propagation of Islam and construction of mosques. Forceful conversion of Hindus and Buddhists to Islam by the wrapping Muslim rulers by showing sensified religious scripture Koran in the left hand and a sharp sword stained by human blood in righthand and writing the sentence ‘accept either of two’ brought far-reaching changes in the process of liberal education. But there was a notion that a religious propagator could only be a suchha (real) Muslim or a Ghazi or martyr who inspired people to embrace Islam by liberal ways.

Educational activities during the medieval period bore the testimony of dissemination of Islam. Educational institutions were attached to mosques; and from the initial stage of education, students were familiarised with fundamental principles and practices of Koran and memorisation of certain verses of Koran. Therefore, the main aim of education was to acquaint the students with verses of Koran and Islamic culture. The prophet Muhammad aptly said, “No present or gift of parents out of all gifts and present to a child is superior to liberal education”, Therefore, the fundamental responsibility of Maktabs

was to enable the students to remember and recite Koranic verses, and of madarasahs the Islam philosophy, Arabic and Persian literature and history.

Inheritance, preservation and transmission of Islamic culture

Education was considered a peaceful means and liberal road to inherit preserve and transmit Islam, islamic culture, traditions, customs and usages not onlyto Muslims but also to Hindus, Buddhists and Jainas.

The aim of education was not only to maintain continuity of lslam religion and its culture but also to proselytize the non-Muslims to lslam through the process of liberal education. Muslims allowed and encouraged others to study in madarasahs. Study of authentic lslamic literature was made compulsory in educational institutions. Muslim rulers and amirspatronised and financed mosques, maktabs and madarasahs mostly on religious and charitable ground.

Islamic education during the medieval period like the ancient Vedic period paid high importance to oral development, the development of moral values and ideals among the students. The gamut of curriculum was so designed as to inculcate in children moral and social values such were the epitomes of thinking and living of. Muslim children. Rigorous practices were undertaken in the process of observance of moral rules and conduct. Students were inspired to adhere to the principles of truth, moral conduct, reverence to elders and deference to the teachers. Moreover, in order to foster moral values, students were taught the usefulness of virtues, honesty, righteousness, truth and the like.

Preparation for future life

In addition to intellectual development of learners, the Islamic system of education aimed at preparing pupils for future life. For this, students were provided such training as to enable them lead a better and successful social life. To materialize the goal, technical education and vocational training were provided. Through adequate and appropriate training in various crafts and trick of the trade, students were prepared to face the contingencies of life with courage and confidence.

Organisation of political and social system

Material gains

It has been stated earlier that education mostly depended on the will and charity of the rulers. In other words, they had a lion’s share in the matter of educational administration. Rulers naturally desired to uphold and maintain their strength and superiority everywhere. They knew that their goals could be attained only if a conducive social and political system emerges in the country through a well-defined education system. Therefore, in the field of education rules, regulations, curricula, instructional strategies, eto. were framed in consonance with social scenario and political panorama of the country.

Medieval education system endeavoured to raise the economic standard of the people. Muslim rulers diplomatically motivated students to study Persian and Arabic which bore the testimony of lslam religion and its culture. A good knowledge of Persian and Arabic was the passport for getting alluring jobs like the post of Kazi(Judge), Vazir (Minister), etc. in the royal court and in different official places of the empire. Moreover, to get honourable ranks, medals, jagirs, etc. many native Hindus Were

consequently inclined to pursue lslamic education as knowledge of Persian and Arabic languages and lslamic religion were criteria for getting state service and many other rewards and awards. Therefore, aim of education was to prepare students for practical life and attainment of material prosperity and benefits.

Formation of good character

Islam lays emphasis on character. Thus, Islamic education aimed at building good character in students. For formation of character, strict discipline was observed in maktabs and madarasahs. Punishment was inflicted on law-breakers and for any breach in code of conduct. Reward and punishment were inflicted on students for making them men of character.

Education for full-man

Like the Vedic education, the islamic education aimed at all-round development of personality of the child-intellectual, physical, material, moral, spiritual, aesthetic and cultural. Education, thus, aimed at providing theoretical education as well as practical training for cognitive, affective and psycho-motor development of students. Aim of Islamic education was, therefore, to develop in children a multi-faceted personality.

TYPES OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

Islamic educational institutions of medieval period can broadly be classified into two : primary stage (maktab) and higher stage (madarasah).

Maktab

Etymologically, the word ‘maktab’ is derived from the Arabic term ‘Kutub which means ‘a place where writing is taught’. During the Muslim rule, maktabs were attached to mosques. Mosques are the places where the Islamic rites and prayers are solemnised. In other words, mosques are the centres of prayer and worship of the Muslims. In medieval period, where mosques were constructed, maktabs were also built quite adjacent to them. Maktabs were the centres of primary education. Although children of royal families and amirs used to receive education at home through private arrangements, children of ordinary Muslim families used to avail the opportunity of receiving elementary education in the maktabs.

Like Upanayan of Brahminical education, a special ceremony was solemnized at the time of admission of children to maktabs. The ceremony of first admission to maktab is called ‘Bismillah’. When a child attains four years four months and four days, his admission ceremony was held in the maktab in the presence of his parents, well-wishers and kith and kin, the child was asked to utter Bismillah. Afterwards, script was taught through eye and ear. Then, the children were taught to memorise the thirteenth chapter of Koran (daily prayer) and Fatiha(verses recited at the burial ceremony).

Khanghar used to provide moral and spiritual education. Durghas were tombs of celebrated fakirs. These institutions used to provide philosophical ideas of the fakirs. Kankhaus institutions provided technical education. In Darghas (shrines where lslamic education was given to Muslim children only) ordinarily Maulavisor religious preceptors were appointed teachers. The offerings made at these places by the devotees were meant for subsistence of Maulavis in addition to regular assistance they used to get

from the patrons of the shrines. During the medievalperiod, primary education (maktab) was of four types, such as:

(a) Koranic schools : They were attached to mosque. Recitation of holy Koranwas taught to children even without making the children understand it. Theydid not teach writing and arithmetic.

(b) Persian schools: The poetic works of Islamic writers and Islamic culture weretaught there.

(d) Arabic schools : These were meant for adults to enable them obtain familiarity in Arabic language and literature.

Madarasah

Madarasah is derived from an Arabic word ‘dars’ (a lecture or a lesson). Itmeans a place where lecture is given or lesson is taught. During the medievalperiod, madarasahs were centres of higher learning. After completion of primary education, students could apply for admission to madarasahs. But no special ceremony or practice was observed for admission to madarasahs. Such institutions were patronised and financed mostly by the Muslim rulers. In addition to royal support, these institutions were receiving assistance in cash and kind from Amirsand philanthrophists interested in the cause of education. Rulers and Amirs set up madarasahs and assisted them mostly for ego-satisfaction and self-gratification as expansion of knowledge was considered a religious deed according to Islam.

Madarasahs or higher institutes of learning were run by the state authority and private organisations. But there was no such clear-cut or specific policy of administration in such institutions.

But every madarasah was managed by a local management as they were not under the direct control of state. During the reign of some Mughal rulers, the Department of justice was entrusted to look after the educational institutions. During the reign of cosmopolitan rulers madarasahs flourished in large numbers. They profoundly patronised higher education in order to generate an army of intellectuals and artisans. The Hindus and the Muslims were allowed to study in madarasahs. During the reign of Akbar Hindu higher educational institutions sprang up and secular outlook in the sphere of education emerged as well.

In addition to maktabs and madarasahs, there were many other centres of public instruction at the sacred places and at the residence of mullah, maulaviandmaulana. This domestic system of education was in vogue during the Mughal period. The success of these individual-run institutions at the house of teachers was spectacular. For example, Abul Fazal and his brother Faizi were the products of such system.

During the medieval period, important centres of lslamic higher learning flourished at Sialkot. Lahore, Multan, Delhi, Agra, Mathura, Ajmir, Lucknow, Jaunpur, Allahbad. Ahmednagar, Bidar, Golkunda, Bijapur, etc. Similarly, some Hindu centres of higher education were functioning at Marvwar, Ujain, Dhar, Nadia, Vijayanagar. Pondichery, etc.

Curriculum

During the medieval period the Muslim princes and princesses were providededucation specially at the sergalio under the eye of their guardians. They were taught by eminent teachers and erudite scholars of Arabic and Persian. Princes were taught military education, Islamic religion, law and administration in the harem to enable them to meet the requirements of state administration as they would one day be rulers of the country.

But children of ordinary families used to receive elementary education in maktabs. Persian was taught first. Hindu children also used to attend maktabs to learn Persian language. Arabic was taught to Muslim children. Script (alphabet)was taught through eye and ear. After acquisition of knowledge of script, children were taught the 13th chapter of Koran to perform daily prayer and Fatiha (the verses to be recited by Muslims at the burial ceremony). Emphasis was greatly laid on correct pronunciation. Primary education in maktabs centred round the mastery of 3R’s, (.e., Reading, Writing and Arithmetic) and Grammar. Children were asked to cram certain essential portions of the holy Koran even without understanding it. Study of Persian grammar was an essential component of primary school curriculum. Stress was given on developing in children the art and science of letter writing, calligraphy, writing of applications and documents. In later period of medieval age when Urdu language was originated, it became a language of study in maktabs. In order to inculcate certain moral values in children ‘Gulistan and Bostan ki Sadi was taught. Children were taught romantic and love stories of Laila-Majnu, Yusuf-Juleka and invasion of Alexander, the Great Sikandarnamah, etc.

Curriculum in madarasahs was comprehensive embodying theoretical, practical and utilitarian subjects. Certain subjects were taught to enable the learners earn their livelihood. After completion of education, desirous students were taking admission in madarasahs. The duration of study was for about 10 to 12 years. There was rio practice or ceremony for admission to madarasahs.

Education in madarasahs could coloured with the paints of Islam. Study of Islam was made compulsory for all in madarasahs up to Akbar’s reign. But Emperor Akbar stopped this practice and study of Islam was made optional for non-Muslims. He made necessary arrangements for study of Hindu religion and philosophy in Islamic educational institutions. Students were made free to choose the study of the subjects of any religious and philosophical doctrine.

Curriculum in madarasahs could broadly be grouped as religious and secular. Under religious education comprehensive and perfect study of Koran was made compulsory. Commentary on Koranic traditions of prophet Muhammad, lslamic laws and doctrines of Sufi saints were incorporated in the curriculum.

Curriculum in madarasahs changed particularly in the matter of religious education during the different phases of Muslim rule. At the initial stage of Muslim rule in India, study of Koran was not made compulsory for non-Muslims because of the then political condition. Later, when rulers started proselytizing the number of Muslims increased. Study of Islam was made compulsory for one and all. But Akbar stopped the practice of compulsion. Thus, education in madarasahs was first secular then non-secular and then secular again.

Persian, Arabic and later Urdu became the languages and literature of study in madarasahs. Besides, secular subjects like Arabic grammar, prose,philosophy, algebra, geometry, logic, law, arithmetic, astrology, geography,physics, medicine, history, agriculture, architecture, accounts, economics,handicraft, sculpture, painting, etc. were taught. For Hindu students, study of Sanskrit, Vedanta, Hindu jurisprudence, philosophy of Patanjali, etc. were made available. As such comprehensive compendium of curriculum helped the students to acquire knowledge of and skills in different branches. Science started receiving weight over philosophy during the medieval period. The study of arts and crafts was duly emphasized. These vocational subjects were taught in separate institutes under the patronage of rulers and private individuals.

Methods of Teaching

Like Vedic and the post-Vedic period, oral method of teaching was also dominating during the medieval period. Rote-learning was widely practised. Students were required to by-heart some portions of Koran and other verses. Arithmetic was taught through oral practice and drill. Writing of Persian and Arabic was taught to students. Monitorial system was prevalent to assist the teacher of single teacher schools. As such no scientific and psychological methods of teaching were in practice in maktabas. Realizing the sheer wastage of time and energy in rote memorization for many years, Akbar tried to bring a reform through introduction of a scientific method of teaching. The reform introduced by Akbar was in writing script. Writing of alphabet, word knowledge and knowledge of sentences were to be emphasized first before cramming Koran and other religious elements. Physical punishment was inflicted on erring students.

But in madarasahs, the method of teaching widely employed was lecture method, (i.e., dars) followed by discussion. Besides, teachers usually encouraged the learners to develop the habit of self-study in order to enhance their boundary of knowledge abundantly. In addition to theoretical instruction practical experience and experimental knowledge of tibi (medicine and physical science), riazi (mathematics, astronomy, music, mechanics), and illahi (theology, divine science) were provided. As Such, practical knowledge was given through experimental and observation methods.

In teaching subjects like logic, religion, philosophy, politics, etc. analytical and inductive methods of teaching were adopted by the teachers. Art and science of discussion were also stressed in madarasahs because the royal courts used to honour and eulogize scholars participating in the discussion of debatable topics and deriving a conclusion.

Place of Teacher

Like Brahminical and Buddhist period, teachers in lslamic period were also held in high esteem. Teachers were men of character and high morality. They enjoyed the confidence and reverence of their fellowmen. Duty, discipline, devotion. moral conduct, humility, etc. were regarded as essential qualities to be possessed both by teachers and students. Historian Zaffar remarks, “Their integrity was absolutely unshakable. They occupied high position in society though their emoluments were small, they commanded universal respect and confidence”.

Teachers used to pay individual attention to the all-round development of students. Since Islam was engrained in the curriculum, almost all teachers were Muslims. Reward and punishment prevailed in the Islamic system of education in the medieval period.

In madarasahs, many erudite scholars were dedicated to the cause of education. Education was free. Accommodation and fooding were given free to learners in madarasahs. As a result, personal interaction paved the way for better teacher-taught relationship.

Examination System

There was no formal or external system of examinations to award certificates of merit to students. No annual examination of modern type was conducted. But the teacher was the sole judge to award certificates of merit to successful learners. For this, he had his own personal methods of assessment and judgement of pupil’s achievement. Teachers used to evaluate pupil’s performance from time to time through personal observation in practical field.

About six hundred and fifty years of a long and chronicle of Muslim rule in India it is clearly evident that Islamic education had considerably been expanded all over the country. It not only provided adequate intellectual food to the people but also endeavoured to solve socio-economic problems of people through professional education.

EDUCATION OF MUSLIM WOMEN DURING THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD

During the Muslim rule in India, education of girls was almost neglected. Especially the girls of the middle class and the poor families did not have opportunity for receiving education worth mentioning. At least elementary education was, to some extent, provided to girls in seclusion. The poor state of affairs of girls’ education was due to puradah system which had been considered an epitome of Islamic culture since long. Moreover, education was considered to be little utility so far the Muslim girls were concerned. Girls were not allowed to go to madarasah for higher education in no case. At best, the Muslim girls could get the opportunity for acquisition of knowledge of 3R’s (Reading, Writing and Arithmetic). However, well-to-do and royal families could make private arrangements for the education of their girls in seclusion. Anyway, some Muslim girls showed their calibre in literary works, cultural pursuits and political field.

Certain ladies of royal families exhibited greater skill and competence in literary sphere and state administration. Sultan Reziya, the daughter of Ilututumish, was a talented lady who could become a dynamic. resourceful administrator and gallant fighter. She patronised education as well as men of letters. Chand Sultana, the favourite queen of the Deccan state, was a highly gifted lady who had mastery over Arabic, Persian, Turkish, Kanarsee and Marathi. The daughter of Babur Princess Gul Badan wrote Humayunnama’, the biography of her brother Humayun. Nurjahan, Begum of Mughal emperor Jahangir, could be able to make an indelible mark in the affairs of state administration, art and architecture.

Nurjahan was good at Arabic and Persian literature. Princess Zebunnisawasa celebrated scholar in Arabic and Persian literature. Mamtaz Begum and herdaughter Zahannara were ladies of high celebrity with proficiency in art and literature. Salima Sultana, one of the Begums of Akbar, was proficient in Persian literature and wrote a number of poems in Persian language. She had a library of her own. Maha Ananga, who nursed Akbar, was a learned lady and promoter of learning. She was the founder of a college at Delhi.

Besides, there would have been certain accomplished Muslim ladies, whose names were not recorded, who might have received some amount of education behind the purdah. But their numbers were small and negligible in comparison with majority of illiterate Muslim women. As a matter of fact, besides individual worthless of certain ladies, education of girls as such was greatly ignored, and thus, was a sorry mess. A large number of Muslim girls could get only domestic learning relating to household activities and duties.

METHODS OF FINANCING EDUCATION

During the medieval period, monarchical form of government was prevalent in India. The attitude and will of the rulers were the determining factors of educational progress. Education of children, who would be the future citizens of the country, was not considered an obligation of the state. As a result, no such state revenue was solely earmarked for the expansion of education. In other word,. there was no systematic and regulated method of financing educational institutions as well as for their development. But assistance to educational institutions flowed as a charity of the rulers and Amirs. But from Akbar’s reign, some type of regulated system of financing for the growth of education came into existence. The office of the Sadar or Sheikh-ul-lslam (minister of religion and judiciary) had the responsibility of co-ordinating the education provided in the institutions run by the State and private individuals.

Many medieval Muslim rulers were religious bigots. Islam attaches greater degree of importance and weight to the acquisition of knowledge. How can knowledge be acquired without education? Therefore, the Muslim rulers built mosques in every nook and corner of the country. With the establishment of mosques for meeting the religious needs of the Muslims, the rulers commissioned mosques as well as maktabs for dissemination of Islam (Koran) through educational process. Such establishment of institutions and provision of assistance to them were mostly guided by charity and religious obligations. Anyhow, educational institutions could be able to receive assistance from the rulers. Rich people and Amirs being inspired by the ruler’s path of charity used to contribute to the cause of education in the form of gifts and donations to educational institutions. No doubt such individual contributions were scanty, yet if such were considered in toto, it would become a considerable amount of income for educational institutions.

The Muslim rulers never hesitated to accord financial assistance to deserving poor and meritorious students. Students were given free education in madarasahs without charging any fee for fooding and boarding. In Muslim law, fees to the teachers were recognised. Teachers used to receive fees not as emolument but as gift. Besides, after completion of education, parents of learners often offered gifts in cash and kind to the teacher.

In medieval period, the kings used to keep in royal courts prolific poets, accomplished writers and celebrated scholars as a mark of their glory and grandeur. The scholars were given deep deference by the state as well as its rulers. Following the path of Sultans and Emperors, nobles and wealthy amirs used to harbour men of letters in their courts and as a mark of patron they accorded all sorts of assistance for their subsistence. This type of learned associations in the durbars animated others to acquire knowledge with certain accomplishment, competence and specialization.